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The Global Democratic Revolution in the 21}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\super\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 st}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 Century,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid9844350 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 (Rowman & Littlefield, 2008)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid14885102 chapter 9}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 .]}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\insrsid15865092 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\cf1\insrsid9844350\charrsid9844350 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \'93 There are at the present time two great nations in the world, which started from}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 different points, but seem to tend towards the same end. I allude to the Russians }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 nd}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the Americans....The American struggles against the obstacles that nature}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 opposes to him; the adversaries of the Russian are men. The former combats the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab w}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ilderness and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 savage life; the latter, civilization with all its arms. The conquests}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 of the American are therefore gained by the plowshare; those of the Russian by}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the sword. The Anglo-American relies upon personal interest to accomplish hi}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 s} {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 ends and gives free scope to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the unguided strength and common sense of the }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab p}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 eople; the Russian centers all the authority of society in a single arm. The}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 principal instrument of the former is freedom; of the latter, servitude. Their}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 starting point is different and their courses are not the same; yet each of them}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 seems marked out by the will of heaven to sway the destinies of half the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 globe.\'94 \par \tab \tab \tab Alexis De Tocqueville, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\cgrid0\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, 1835.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4868629 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 Introduction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\b\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655\charrsid8665507 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655\charrsid8665507 I benefited greatly from conversations about Tocqueville with Stephen Engel and Boris Kapustin.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid488317 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 \par Alexis de Tocqueville famously predicted that {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America{\*\xmlclose} and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} would rise to dominate world polit}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9907599\charrsid12131671 ics, given that each country had}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 vast resources, }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9907599\charrsid12131671 a }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 large and rising population and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 ambitious leaders}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid488317 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655\charrsid8665507 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655\charrsid8665507 On Tocqueville and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} , see }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655\charrsid8665507 Martin E.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655 Malia, \'93Did Tocqueville foresee totalitarianism?\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 Journal of Democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655 \endash vol. 11, no. 1, January 2000, pp. 179-186; Irena G. Gross, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af192 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\v\f192\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 \'ea\'b3\'ea\'f3 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 The Scar of Revolution: Custine, Tocqueville, and the Romantic Imagination}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 He }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 also saw {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} as doomed to servitude, just as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was destined for freedom. }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 \par \tab Tocqueville\rquote s }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 Democracy in America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 (1835) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 is interesting not just for what it tells us about the American society of his day, but also }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 because }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 it can }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 be taken as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 one model for how a social scientist can go about studying a given society. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 In this and his other works, most notably }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 The Old Regime and the Revolution}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 (1856), Tocqueville showed}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 an extraordinary self-awareness and sensitivity to questions of method and approach, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 one }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 that truly marks him as one of the founders of modern social science. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 The goal of this chapter is to take up the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 framework which }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville developed in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 Democracy in America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 use it to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 analyze the prospects for democracy in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 post-1991}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9907599\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9907599\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 One }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 problem with this exercise}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 is that while Tocq}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid268725\charrsid12131671 ueville}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 trying to explain the roots of democracy\rquote s }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 success}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}, with regard to contemporary }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 he}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 challenge is to e}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 xplain}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 e }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 failure}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 of democratic institutions to take }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 hold}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 .}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 Also, the circumstances of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5382226\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} in 2007}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 and the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}United States{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in 1830 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 differ}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 so }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 radically}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 , }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 in so many dimensions, that the task cannot be one of direct \'93comparison.\'94 Rather,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 is }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4547255\charrsid12131671 will be }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 an intellectual exercise to see whether}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville\rquote s method can yield fresh insights into the political sociology of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} today. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville looked at {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} through the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 triple }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 prism of \'93conditions,\'94 \'93mor}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 e}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 s\'94 and \'93institutions.\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 Our conclusion will be that geopolitical }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6429719\charrsid12131671 conditions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 and societal morals are }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 indeed }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 vital to explaining the duration of autocracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia {\*\xmlclose}, yet these factors are often overlooked in Western analysis of contemporary {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. Specifically, by \'93conditions\'94 we have in mind factors such as a country\rquote s vulnerability to foreign attack, and by \'93morals\'94 the role of religion. Tocqueville\rquote s analysis}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6429719\charrsid12131671 of institutions}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 concurs with the mainstream of contemporary Western thinking about the importance of rule of law and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 civil society}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 activity, the absence of which is held to account for the failure of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s democratic transition.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 It is quite common for {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} to be compared to the oth}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 er post-socialist countries, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 even to countries in tr ansition from authoritarian}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 ism}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Latin America}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6955216\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}. But few scholars now attempt}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13834078\charrsid12131671 a direct comparison between {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} and the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}USA{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6955216\charrsid12131671 Back in the time of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the Cold War, it was quite common to see studies written by Americans that }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 stressed the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 differences}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 between }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Soviet and American society \endash a natural outgrowth of the military-political rivalry between the two systems. The genre ranged from Hedrick Smith\rquote s dissection of daily life in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 The Russians}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 (1976) to Paul Hollander\rquote s comparison of Soviet propaganda and American advertising.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Hedrick Smith, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 The Russians}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (New York: New York Times Books, 1976); Paul Hollander, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Soviet and American Society: A Comparison}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 However, the c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 omparative approach (even a comparison grounded in difference) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 has fallen out of favor in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place }}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} since 1991. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} Russia{\*\xmlclose} is now so widely reviled as the \'93other,\'94 a potage of poverty, crime, corruption, and extreme terrorism, that }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 Americans no longer write }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 books comparing {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} with the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}USA {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 There is of course a long tradition of Western literature treating {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} as the \'93 other\'94: an alien culture at Europe\rquote s door, dating back at least to the Marquis de Custine\rquote s trip to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in 1839.}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid943887 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Astolphe, Marquis de Custine, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Empire of the Czars}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (New York: Doubleday, 1989).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 Recent years have s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 een a somewhat surprising revival of the old arguments about Russian backwardness, based on a belief that {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} has followed a unique historical path that has \'93locked in\'94 authoritarian political values and institutions.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid3823939\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3823939 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Stefan Hedlund, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid3823939 Russian Path Dependence. A People With a Troubled History}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Routledge, 2005).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid488317\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 At the same time}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 , in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} itself}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16714041\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 the comparison with the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}United States{\*\xmlclose} remains a common point of reference}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 , }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 although}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 analysis does focus more on contrasts than similarities \endash hence }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 the publication of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 books explaining \'93Why Russia is not {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.\'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Andrei Petrovich Parshev, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Pochemy Rossiya Ne Amerika}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Why Russia is not {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America{\*\xmlclose}), ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}} Moscow{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Krymskyi Most, 2000); see also Sergei Chugrov, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid13257655 Rossiya i Zapad: Metamorfozy vzaimovospriyatiya}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} and the West: Metamorphoses of Mutual Perception), ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Moscow {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, 1993).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5382226\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2647182 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9844350 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid9844350 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 The Sorry State of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russian{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12079156 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16465111 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 After }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 1991}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 , most American observers quickly assumed that {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was on a path to a Western-style market economy and liberal democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 . They took}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1123307\charrsid12131671 the Soviet collapse as vindication of Francis Fukuyama\rquote s prescient 1989 essay on \'93The End of History}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1123307\charrsid12131671 \'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 which argued that liberal democracy }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 was now unchallenged}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 as a blueprint for national development and social progress.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid1123307\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1123307 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Francis Fukuyama, \'93The End of History,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 National Interest}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , no. 16, summer 1989. The essay was \'93prescient\'94 because it was written in the spring of 1989, three months before the Hungarians took down the border fences and six months before the fall of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Berlin {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} wall.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 In the 1990s both}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 the Russian and US governments}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 operated on the shared assumption that Russia was in the process of becoming a democracy}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 , one}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 that would take its rightful place among the Western family of nations \endash a status recognized by Russia\rquote s accession to the G}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 8}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid280319\charrsid12131671 group of advanced democratic nations in 1997}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Strobe Talbott, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 The {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} Hand: A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Random House, 2003).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5851298\charrsid12131671 Despite these initial hopes,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 however,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1123307\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}} Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s political trajectory since 1991 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5851298\charrsid12131671 has}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1123307\charrsid12131671 been a grave disappointment to Western observers. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid9839117\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16465111\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 After seven decades of Soviet authoritarian rule, t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9839117\charrsid12131671 he perestroika reforms launched by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev after 1985}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 led to a degree of}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 press freedom and partially contested elections in 1989}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 -90}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6900120\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9839117\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 But t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 he social and ethnic unrest unleashed by Gorbachev\rquote s reforms led to the collapse of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}S}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 oviet }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 Union}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 December }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 1991}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9009438\charrsid12131671 . The}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russian Federation{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} emerged}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9009438\charrsid12131671 as an independent state }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 with a more or less free press, a spectrum of independent political parties and social movements, and an elected legislature and president. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 Ironically, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} probably experienced its highest level of democratic freedom in 199}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 1}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7620738\charrsid12131671 , when it was still part of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} . Since then, the scope for political contestation has steadily contracted}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6900120\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s first president, Boris}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 Yeltsin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 , won a fairly free election in June 1991.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid9009438\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9009438 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Lilia Shevtsova, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Yeltsin\rquote s Russia: Myths and Reality }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Brookings Institution, 1999).}}}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9009438\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 But hi}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 s decision to launch radical economic reform in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3626061\charrsid12131671 January }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 1992 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 l}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 e}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 d}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 n ugly standoff between }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 reformist president and a }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 Congress}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 which opposed }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 hi}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 s \'93shock therapy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 \'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 This }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 confrontation }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 culminated in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 Septem}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 ber 1993 with Yeltsin\rquote s unconstitutional order disbanding the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 legislature}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 . When the deputies refused to depart}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 Yeltsin ordered the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 army to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 storm the parliament }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 building}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 A}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 new }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid943887\charrsid12131671 c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 onstitution giving stronger powers to the president was adopted in December 19 93, at the same time as voters elected a new }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 parliament, the State Duma}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 . But those elections were won}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 by nationalists and Communists, so the political stand-off between the executive and legislative branches continued. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 In a bid to deflect political criticism, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 Yeltsin launched a brutal war to regain control over the rebel {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}province{\*\xmlclose} of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Chechnya{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} at the end of 1994. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 Yeltsin narrowly won re-election}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 as president}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 June }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 1996}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 after a campaign marred by biased media coverage and shady back-room maneuvering. Still, during the years of the Yeltsin presidency (1991-99) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4019935\charrsid12131671 the media were more or less free, with some independently-owned TV and radio stations criticizing the government. E}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 lections were held on }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 schedule}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 and the results }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 broadly}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 reflected the will of the voters.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16262147\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16262147 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Richard Rose and Neil Munro, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Elections Without Order: {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} Russia{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s Challenge to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Vladimir{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Putin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Cambridge University Press, 2002); Timothy Colton}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 , Transitional Citizens: Voters and What Influences Them in the New {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} (Harvard University Press, 2000); Michael McFaul, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Russia\rquote s Unfinished Revolution: Political Change from Gorbachev to Putin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Cornell University Press, 2001).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1654452\charrsid12131671 In the course of coming to power, Yeltsin had struck deals with regional leaders, weakening the capacity of the federal government and allowing a de facto decentralization of power to the provinces. }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16465111 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 \tab Yeltsin resigned in December 1999, nominating}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 his hand-picked successor}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 Vladimir }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 Putin }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 \'93 acting president,\'94 and Putin cruised to victory in the March 2000 presidential election.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Lilia Shevtsova, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Putin\rquote s Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid13257655 nd}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ed. 2005).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1654452\charrsid12131671 President Putin moved quickly and decisively to roll back the nascent political pluralism of the Yeltsin years, and recentralize authority in the Kremlin in what came to be called the \'93power vertical}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1654452\charrsid12131671 \'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13304376 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 M. Steven Fish, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Democracy Derailed in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Cambridge{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}University{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Press, 2005).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13304376\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1654452\charrsid12131671 Within weeks of taking office Putin}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 tighten}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1654452\charrsid12131671 ed}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 state control}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 over the media, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13773563\charrsid12131671 sending into }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 ex}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13773563\charrsid12131671 i}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 l}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13773563\charrsid12131671 e}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 two of the oligarchs who had controlled national television stations}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 during the Yeltsin years}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 . The}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 restrictions on organized political opposition }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 were gradually tightened.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 Putin removed the elected regional governors from the upper house of parliament, and in the December}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 2003}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 elections } {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 the pro-Kremlin United Russia party won mo re than two-thirds of the seats in the State Duma. Subsequent changes to electoral law made it even more difficult for opposition forces to win representation: the single-member seats that used to fill half the Duma were abolished, and the minimum thresho ld for representation }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 in the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 proportional representation }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 party-list race }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 that now filled the whole body }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10029602\charrsid12131671 was raised from 5 to 7%. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 Putin also took steps to limit federalism, imposing legislative uniformity across {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s regions; tightening central control of the state budget; and in 2004 abolishing elections for regional governors.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5798543 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid5798543 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 For an overview, see Lilia Shevtsova, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid5798543 Yeltsin\rquote s Russia: Myths and Reality }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999); Lilia Shevtsova, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid5798543 Putin \rquote s Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 , ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Washington{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}DC{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid5798543 nd}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 ed. 2005). }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 The erosion of democracy was due pa rtly to the machinations of the presidential administration, and partly to the inability of opposition forces to coalesce behind coherent parties that offered a viable alternative to the Kremlin.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5798543 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid5798543 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid5798543 Henry Hale, \'93} {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid5798543 HYPERLINK "http://wos17.isiknowledge.com/?SID=W6JnNLMDLkhhDEEaBIg&Func=Abstract&doc=1/33" }}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs23\cf1\insrsid5798543 Why not parties? Electoral markets, party substitutes, and stalled democratization in Russia}}}\sectd \linex0\endnhere\titlepg\sectdefaultcl\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid5798543 , }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid5798543 Comparative Politics}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid5798543 , vol. 37 no. 2, January 2005. 147-66.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13773563\charrsid12131671 \par \tab E}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 conomic developments also played a role in the retreat of democracy.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13773563\charrsid12131671 T}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 he }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 economic slump of the 1990s, during which GDP and living standards fell by 30-40%, was inevitably associated in the public eye with the onset of democracy. What use was democracy, if it could not protect citizens from such a fate? In Central European countries such as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Poland{\*\xmlclose} or {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Hungary{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} , the transitional state was able to do a better job at preserving the welfare state and thus to some degree ameliorating the costs of transition for the poor. The Russian state dismally failed in such a role in the 1990s. At the same time the }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 economy w}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 as going}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 through a rapid process of privatization, with 70% of state assets being transferred into legally independent corporations. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 A}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 small group of \'93oligarchs\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 managed to seize}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 control of about one third of these }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 former state industries}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 during the highly corrupt privatization process}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 . This meant that}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 the decentralization of power that one would have expected to follow from the introduction of capitalism failed to materialize. Most of the oligarchs maintained close relations with the Kremlin, and those that did not eventually paid a price for their independence. The most striking example is th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15817881\charrsid12131671 at}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the founder of the Yukos oil company}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 who }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 briefly the richest man in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} with an estimated personal wealth of $16 billion. Khodorkovsky }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10425618\charrsid12131671 was funding}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5124051\charrsid12131671 opposition }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10425618\charrsid12131671 parties in the run-up to the December 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 003 Duma elections, and he seemed poised to}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10425618\charrsid12131671 back a candidate to challenge Putin in the March 2004 presidential election. So }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 Khodorkovsky}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10425618\charrsid12131671 was arrested on trumped up tax evasion charges in October 2003, and subsequently sentenced to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15817881\charrsid12131671 eight}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10425618\charrsid12131671 years in jail. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 The Yukos oil company was forced into bankruptcy and its assets divided up amongs t the state-owned companies Gazprom and Rosneft. Putin also bought up some of the other private oil companies and pushed out foreign oil ventures, effectively renationalizing the crucial oil sector, which was driving {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s post-2000 economic recovery. Observers started to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 argue}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 that {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was falling prey to the \'93resource curs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 e,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 \'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 which refers to the fact that very few }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 countries that are}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 dependent on oil exports make a successful}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12929111\charrsid12131671 transition to democracy.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Fish, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , 118-36.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15817881\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 \tab The best known democracy index is that compiled by Freedom House. Countries are graded on a seven point scale for the level of political rights (PR) and civil liberties (CL), with 1-2 being \'93free\'94 and 6-7 \'93unfree.\'94 Freedom House regarded t he new {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russian{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}Republic{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} as \'93 partly free,\'94 ranking it 3 for PR and 4 for CL from 1993 through 1997. (See Figure One.) {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s grade slipped to 4 for PR and 5 for CL in 1999 and 5/5 in 2000-2003. In 2004 Russia was relegated to the category \'93unfree\'94, with a 6 for PR and 5 for CL.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11627650 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Robert W. Orttung, \'93{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose},\'94 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Nations in Transit 2005}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Freedom House, 2005), at http://www.freedomhouse.org. }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 That ranking actually places Russia\rquote s political system }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 below}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 that of places like Afghanistan or Bahrain, which seems somewhat unrealistic, given the level of violence}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 , the absence of contestation,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 seclusi}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10309785\charrsid12131671 on of women in those countries}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11627650\charrsid12131671 . But even if the international comparisons may be shaky, the Freedom House index fairly accurately captures the trajectory of Russian democracy over time. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 I}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 n terms of civil liberties, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 daily life }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 for Russian citizens }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 is quite free, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12079156\charrsid12131671 with respect to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 freedom of movement and travel, freedom of religion and so forth. For example, the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 Soviet }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 registration system }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 that required police permission to change one\rquote s place of residence }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 was legally abolished. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 Non-governmental organizations}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15995989\charrsid12131671 (NGOs)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 have sprung up,} {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 and some have become an accepted part of the political scene \endash such as the C}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15995989\charrsid12131671 ommittee of Soldiers\rquote Mothers. However, t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 hose which are seen as politically-motivated }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 or connected to foreign sponsors }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 have been the target of state crackdowns.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5140827 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Sarah Henderson, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Building Democracy in Contemporary {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. Western Support for Grassroots Organizations}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Cornell{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}University{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Press, 2003).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 Even under Yeltsin }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 in the 1990s some groups were harassed. For example,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 Western observers were alarmed by the 1997 law on r eligious organizations which forced all congregations founded during the previous 15 years to re-register. The Putin administration got more serious about curtailing }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5140827\charrsid12131671 NGO}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 activities after {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Georgia{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s \'93rose revolution\'94 in 2003 and the \'93orange revolution\'94 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Ukraine{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} the next year, both of which were actively assisted by Western-funded NGOs.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Graeme Herd, \'93Colorful revolutions and the CIS,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Problems of Post-Communism}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , v. 52, n. 2, March 2005.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 A new}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 more restrictive law requiring all foreign-based NGOs to reregister came into effect in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in April 2006.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Anastasia Kornya, \'93NGOs fail the test,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Vedomosti}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , 29 June 2006. }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14235843 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14235843\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16079032 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid16079032 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 The Tocquevillian approach}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville divided the relevant factors shaping American democracy into three: historical and geographic conditio}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5382226\charrsid12131671 ns; the prevailing mores}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ; and the ruling institutions. Tocqueville was not deterministic: he recognized the constraints of history and geography, but also gave ample room for human agency in choosing to live by certain moral codes and creating certain institutions. {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}France{\*\xmlclose} and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} had experienced revolutions as a result of which new moral codes and political institutions were brought into being, so Tocqueville did not see history as a vice. He was not}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 a believer in \'93path dependency,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 a popular approach in contemporary political science which sees countries as \'93locked in\'94 to certain institutional arrangements by the sequence of historical events they have experienced.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4868629 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 Paul Pierson, \'93Increasing returns, path dependence and the study of politics,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 American Political Science Review}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 , vol. 94, no. 2, June 2000, pp. 251-267.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15995989\charrsid12131671 At the same time, as he showed in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15995989\charrsid12131671 The Old Regime and the Revolution}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15995989\charrsid12131671 , he was aware of the powerful continuities in human history, such that even after a revolutionary upheaval a society will still carry many features of the preceding regime. This truth became all too apparent in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} under President Putin, as, one after another, partially-submerged features of the Soviet system started to resurface.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville\rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 s approach }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 is}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 deeply sociological: he does not dwell on contingency, or}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 the chance sequence of events}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5382226\charrsid12131671 , though he does recognize that human interventions produce unintended consequences}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 . No}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 r he does he over-emph}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 asize the role of leadership. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 In contrast to most}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 contemporary }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 writing}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 on {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s origins}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 , he does }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 not }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 provide }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 a \'93Great Man\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 account of the role of the Founding Fathers in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s origin. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 Likewise, a majority of the books written on {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s transition to democracy also take a \'93great man\'94 approach, often being written as straight biographies of Gorbachev, Yeltsin and Putin. Tocqueville reminds us that this is not the best way to write history. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9844350 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid4868629\charrsid12131671 Conditions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} lacks nearly all the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15282043\charrsid12131671 conditions understood by contemporary political science as}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 p rerequisites for a successful transition to democracy. In its long history there is no experience of democracy, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 and barely any experience}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 of civil society, to draw on. Two centuries of the Mongol yoke}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 (1240-1480)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 were followed by }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 4}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 00 years of the most oppre}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 ssive autocratic rule in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Europe{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. This was succeede}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 d by 75 years of Soviet totalitarianism: the most innovative and deep-rooted system of authoritarian rule the world had ever seen. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 In contrast,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville\rquote s {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} was a former }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 colony }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Britain{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} , with 150 years}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 \rquote }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 experience of rule of law and a degree of self-}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 government}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 which was high by contemporary standards. The {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}United States{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} itself came into}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 existence }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 through an act of}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 rebellion }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 and an assertion of self-rule }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 against a central state. In contrast Tsarist Russia and the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place }}Soviet Union{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} that succeeded it were both}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 multinational}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 empires,}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 different versions o}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 f}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 an \'93empire-state\'94 whose national identity was forged not in self-rule, but in ruling over others. (}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 The population of the }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 n Empire}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 in 1917 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 only }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 44% ethnic Russian}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 while }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 that of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the USSR in 1989 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12792015\charrsid12131671 still only }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 53% Russian.) \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 \tab It is t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 rue}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 that}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was not itself colonized or under lasting foreign occupation (since 1480). But this may be a liability rather than an asset, in the sense that among former colonies, experience of British rule positively correlates with democratization. And am ong former empires, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}US{\*\xmlclose} military occupation was instrumental in the introduction of stable democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Japan{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Germany{\*\xmlclose} and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Italy{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16205562 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 On the other hand, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} shares with {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} the experience of being born out of revolution. The Soviet Union emerged from a revolutionary overthrow of the existing authorities in 1917, and today\rquote s {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russian Federation{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} came out of a quasi-revo lution in 1991 whose slogans were democracy and sovereignty. However, from a Tocquevillian perspective the revolutions of 1917 and 1991 have more in common with the experiences of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}France{\*\xmlclose} in 1789 than {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in 1776. The}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 Russian revolutions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 involved the breakdown of social order and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 a collapse into anarchy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 rather than the}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 positive affirmation of a new community. Russian public opinion itself is ambivalent over whether 1917 should be seen as a step forward, while a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 n overwhelming}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 majority regards 1991 in negative terms.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16205562 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 For example in a 2002 survey, 27% gave a negative assessment of the October 1917 revolution, 33% said it \'93gave a push to socio-economic development,\'94 and 27% said it opened a new era. Levada Center P ress Release, 5 November 2002, http://www.levada.ru/. Opinions about August 1991 were more negative. In a July 2005 poll, only 10% saw the events as a democratic revolution, 36% saw them as a \'93tragedy for the country\'94 and 43% characterized them as \'93the usual elite struggle for power.\'94 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Levada{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}Center{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Press Release, 18 August 2005.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 Famously, in his state-of-the-nation address on 25 April 2005, President Putin described the collapse of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} as \'93the biggest geopolitical catastrophe of the century.\'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 www.kremlin.ru/eng/}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 In contrast, in the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}U}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 nited }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 S} {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 tates}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 the revolution of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 1776 continues to be regarded as an unadulterated good.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 Clearly, the Soviet collapse did not launch the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russian Federation{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in a spirit of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 optimism and self-determination;}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 and a sense of defeat and despair is not conducive to the flourishing }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7541955\charrsid12131671 freedom and democracy. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 Western observers usually dismiss this sense of historical loss as part of Russians\rquote alleged nostalgia for empire, and they do not }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 typically make}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 the connection }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 between this experience and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s subsequent lack of readiness to embrace democracy.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16205562\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville stressed {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s freedom from foreign attack}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 (a \'93nation without neighbors\'94), due to its fortuitous location behind the Atlantic ocean, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 tremendously important in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 creating }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 space for a free society to develop. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 This happy situation continued for the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}United States{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} throughout the 19}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 century. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 In}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 the 20}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 century, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s engagement in the two world wars did not bring any }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 death and destruction}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 to the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 civilian population of the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 continental US. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s experience is quite the opposite: centuries of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 fending off}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 foreign invasion }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 culminat}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 ing}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 in the devastating }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 \'93Great Patriotic War}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 \'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 of 1941-45.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 That was}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 followed by the Cold War: }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 a decades-long institutionalization of vulnerability to total destruction. This fear of foreigners did not disappear with the dissolution of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}USSR}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. In effect, t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 he {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} lost the Cold War, and in the wake of that defeat many Russians felt their country was weakened and even more vulnerable than before. From their perspective, all of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 recent}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 enemies remained in place after 1991, from NATO to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}China{\*\xmlclose}; while }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 old }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 foes were stirring ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Poland{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Turkey{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} ) and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 new}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ones were rising (radical Islam). The men in charge of Russian security after 1991 were all born and bred during the Cold War: it was unrealistic to imagine that their fundamental assumptions about the character of the global system }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 as a threatening environment }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 would change overnight.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15944437\charrsid12131671 And this sense of existential vulnerability, Tocqueville would tell us, is not fertile soil for the flourishing of freedom.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 Russians seem}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 willing to give up a degree of political pluralism in return for the security of a strong leader. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 A}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 lthough {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} had been \'93defeated}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \'94 it still possessed the nuclear arsenal that had guaranteed its security during the Cold War. This led {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s leaders to believe that its place a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 t the table of the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 leading p}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ower}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 s}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 was assured, that it could and should be a rule-maker and not a rule-taker in the international system.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid869009\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid869009 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655\charrsid14251007 Andrei Tsygankov, }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid869009 Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 \rquote s Foreign Policy: Change a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid869009 nd Continuity in National Identity}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655\charrsid14251007 (Rowman and Littlefield, 2006}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ); }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655\charrsid14181174 Robert Legvold (ed.), }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655\charrsid14181174 Russian Foreign Policy in the 21}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\lang9\langfe1033\super\langnp9\insrsid13257655\charrsid14181174 st}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655\charrsid14181174 Century and the Shadow of the Past}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs22 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655\charrsid14181174 (Columbia University Press, 2007).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 E}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 ven Yeltsin, who was making genuine}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 overtures to the West, wanted {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 be respected as an equal}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . Under Putin, the contradictions in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s position became sharper still, with {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Moscow{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} resisting international pressures to embrace dem}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 ocratization when the latter came to be}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 seen as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6774219\charrsid12131671 deliberately intended to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 weaken the Russian state. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13388375\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 In terms of economic circumstances, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia {\*\xmlclose} does have the vast land and resources that Tocqueville saw as giving {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} better living conditions }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 and fewer social conflicts, than {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Europe{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} . However, the economic preconditions for democracy have changed since the time of Tocqueville. Post-industrial and internationally integrated economies are now the most developed, and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 most compatible with democracy. From the Soviet period {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} inherited an economy that was predominantly industrial, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 but }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 with 20% of the workforce still engaged in highly inefficient agriculture. These traditional economic sectors }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 we}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 re held together by state subsidies and by hierarchical, patriarchal social relations}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 : an economic structure highly inimical to liberal democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 In the 15 years since 1991 the Russian economy has become more internationally integrated, with trade leaping from 10% to 25% of GDP. But this integration has been driven by the export of oil, gas and metals, leaving {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} prone to the \'93resource curse.\'94 International experience suggests that resource dependency tends to distort the country\rquote s economic development, shrinking its manufacturing sector, but also makes it more prone to authoritarian politics since it is easy for a small ruling elite to capture the revenue flow from resource exports}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\cf1\super\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3685035 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Michael L. Ross, \'93 Does oil hinder democracy?,\'94}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 World Politics}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 53, no. 3, 2001, 325-361; Michael L. Ross, \'93The political economy of the resource curse,\'94 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 World Politics}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 51, no.1, January 1999, 297-322.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 The term \'93resource curse\'94 was unknown in Tocqueville\rquote s day, but he was clearly aware that the slave-owning, staple-exporting economy of the South was far less conducive to democracy that the family farms and manufacturers of the North. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Are there any conditions that are conducive to democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}? Most of the social infrastructure for modern life is in place.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 has a highly educated, literate and urbanized population, with a high degree of gender equality in terms of women\rquote s ability to access education and the labor market. However}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 very low life expectancy, especially for men (58}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1265624\charrsid12131671 .9}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 years) points to serious social pathologies which do not augur well for democra}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 cy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16401442 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 In 2004, out of 177 countries in the United Nations Development Project Human Development Index, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} placed 65}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid13257655 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 . It ranked 33}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid13257655\charrsid10971074 rd}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 for education (88% school enrollment and 99.6% adult literacy); 59}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid13257655 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 for GDP per capita ($9,902); and 115}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \super\insrsid13257655 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 for life expectancy (65.2 years). It dropped from an aggregate score of 0.813 in 1990 to 0.771 in 1995, recovering to 0.797in 2004. UNDP, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid16401442 Human Development Report 2006}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 . http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16401442 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville stressed {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s advantages in being free of a landed aristocracy or an established Church. This gave it a head start in providing a foundation of social equality}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 , at least outside the South. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 Land w}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 as not concentrated in a few hands, as in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Europe}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose},}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 the absence of primogeniture would help prevent the accumulation of large estates. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 The open frontier would ensure that land ownership was an option for the masses. These material conditions were matched by a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 n }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 absence of strict social hierarchies, compared to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Europe{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6107740 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 The {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} did not have a landed aristocracy or Church, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 having ruthlessly destroyed these institutions in the wake of the 1917 revolution}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 Soviet society was more egalitarian than 19}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\super\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 century {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}France{\*\xmlclose} \endash Tocqueville\rquote s point of reference \endash but it }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 not as open and equal as 19}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\super\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 century {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New England{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Its official ideo}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 logy proclaimed social equality}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 , and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 it was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 very }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 difficult to acquire wealth}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15675115\charrsid12131671 in the form of property}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 But}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the Communist Party hierarchy was firmly in place, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 consisting of an elaborately}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 graduated ranking of political status }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 (the \'93nomenklatura\'94) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 with accompanying privileges}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 governing all aspects of life, from career opportunities, to vacations, to the purchase of sausage}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Mikhail Voslensky, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Class}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (New York: Doubleday, 1984). }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6107740\charrsid12131671 \par In the course of the 1990s, Russian society has become more unequal at the same time that it has become more free. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 The nomenklatura system collapsed, though closed political elites remain in power in many regions. Market reform rapidly produced a new class of property holders, and the ownership of productive assets was highly concentrated in the hands of a new class o f entrepreneurs and corrupt government officials. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 That perceived stalwart of democratic stability, the middle class, is but weakly present in contemporary Russian society. The old Soviet middle class }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 highly educated, state-employed professionals has }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 eroded}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 , and in its place a new middle class is slowly emerging}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 , accounting for no more than one fifth of the population}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16401442 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Harley Balzer, \'93Russia\rquote s middle classes,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Post-Soviet Affairs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 14, no. 2, April 1998, 165-86.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 Most of the middle class is still emp loyed by the state, and these teachers and doctors have very low salaries. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 About on}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 e million small businesses}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 have emerged}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 , but that number has not risen for the past 10 years}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid13257655\charrsid12131671 , and they employ less than 10% of the labor force}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1649732\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 Income inequality as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 measured by t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 he Gini coefficient r}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 ose}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 from 0.26 in 1991 to 0.409 in 1994 and 0.399 in 2004}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid6052030 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 . T.Yu. Bogomolova and V.S. Tapilina, \'93Ekonomicheskaya stratifikatsiya naseleniya Rossii v 90e gody,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , no. 6, June 2001, 32-43, p. 32. The 2004 figure is taken from the UNDP Human Development Report. }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 That is }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 about the same as the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}US{\*\xmlclose}, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 but}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 well below the level of inequality to be found in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 countrie}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 s such as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Brazil{\*\xmlclose} or {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}India{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 Although economic equality is }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 onducive to democratic stability, the coexistence of high levels of inequality and a functioning democracy in countries as diverse as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Brazil{\*\xmlclose} and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} India{\*\xmlclose} suggest that inequality is not necessarily a barrier to the spread of democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Perhaps the strongest }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid6052030\charrsid12131671 \'93conditions\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 argument in favor of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s democratic prospects is that of living standards. Tocqueville un derstood that the abundance of land and corresponding higher standard of living in the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}U.S.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was highly favorable for}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 democracy. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 If the poor have the hope of a comfortable life through their own efforts, they are less likely to use democratic institutions to expropriate the rich. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1265624\charrsid12131671 Contemporary studies show that countries with per capita income above }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 $5,000 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1265624\charrsid12131671 per year are very likely to make the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 transition to stable democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10971074\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16401442 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Carles Boix, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid16401442 Democracy and Redistribution}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), Adam Przeworski at al, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid16401442 Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well- Being in the World, 1950-1990}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (Cambridge University Press, 2000). The exceptions are oil-rich Islamic countries such as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Qatar{\*\xmlclose} or {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Brunei{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10971074\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1265624\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 dipped below that threshold in the 1990s, but is now rising well above it. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 In terms of purchasing power parity}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 , Russian }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10971074\charrsid12131671 GDP per capita }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 was close to $5,000 per head in 1990, fell to $3,000 by 1997, and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 had}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 recovered to }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 $9}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 9}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 00}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 in 2004}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 UNDP, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655\charrsid16401442 Human Development Report 2006}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 .}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10971074\charrsid12131671 At the current exchange rate, GDP per capita was $4,042 in 2004.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 GDP has grown at 5-7% per year since 1999, driven in large part by the boom in world oil prices. If th is continues for another decade, then {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s democratic prospects look fairly promising. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 Of course it }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 turn out}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 that Russia proves to be an exception to the correlation of wealth and democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 found in most other countries}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 , due to a combination of the \'93resource curse\'94 and the \'93Russian curse\'94 (}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 that is, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 1200 years of authoritarian rule). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12802351 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Ethnic homogeneity was not a prominent issue in Tocqueville\rquote s explanation of American democracy. {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} was a new community built on a shared identification with republican values, and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 consisting for the most part of English-speaking Protestants.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 (This homogeneity being assured by the exclusion of African and Native Americans.) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 But in the modern world ethnic fragmentation is }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 generally }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 seen as a }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 serious obstacle to}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 democratic consolidation}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 . Ethnic polarization has undermined democracy in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 countrie}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 s from {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Sri Lanka{\*\xmlclose} to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Lebanon}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} \endash although there are some outliers, such as {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}India{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} , where ethnic fragmentation has not }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 prevented the functioning of}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 liberal democracy. }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} is fairly homogeneous by international standards, w}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ith 79.8% of the population }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 registered as }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ethnic Russian}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 according to the 2002 census}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 http://www.perepis2002.ru/}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 However, about half of the non-Russian population }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16401442\charrsid12131671 (12-15 million people) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 are Moslem. The Moslems of the middle {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Volga{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} (Tatars and Bashkirs) have lived under Russian rule for 500 years and see n reconciled to their situation as a minority within the Russian state. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 They }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 enjoy}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 a substantial degree of autonomy through the system of Russian federalism, which grants self-rule to 21 ethnically designated \'93republics.\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Among the Moslems of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}North Caucasus{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, however, the Che}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 chen quest for }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 secession}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 triggered two brutal wars (1994-96 and 1999-2003). }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8404988\charrsid12131671 The Chechen question has its roots in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s historical legacy as an empire. The Chechens preserved memories of their conquest in the 1840s and the entire nation\rquote s deportation to {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Central Asia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} by Stalin in 1944.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 Some observers argue that the treatment of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Chechnya{\*\xmlclose} alone rules out any consideration of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} as a legitimate democracy. The outbreak of the second Chechen war in 1999 was closely connected to Putin\rquote s rise to power and his subsequent ability to concentrate power in the hands of an authoritarian presidency. \par \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 Although open resistance has}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 ended}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 , Chechen and Islamic }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 resistance}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12861584\charrsid12131671 groups are}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 still capable of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 mounti}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 ng terroris}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid12802351\charrsid12131671 t acts}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8404988\charrsid12131671 , }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1320721\charrsid12131671 which}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8404988\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1320721\charrsid12131671 giv}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8404988\charrsid12131671 e the Kremlin a pretext for tightening authoritarian controls. Thus, after the dreadful Beslan school siege in September 2004, Putin abolished the direct election of regional governors: instead, they } {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1320721\charrsid12131671 are now}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8404988\charrsid12131671 nominated by the president}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16079032 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16079032 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid5382226\charrsid12131671 More}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid3685035\charrsid12131671 s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville made it clear that the success of democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} was closely connected to the prevailing social mores. He saw the American revolution as animated by the spirit of liberty and the spirit of religion. Absent the internalization of norms of independence and responsibility among the common people, democratic institutions c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1320721\charrsid12131671 ann}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 ot be made to work effectively. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi720\li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3415508 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 Centuries of Tsarist and Soviet rule seemed to leave Russian citizens sorely ill-prepared for the moral responsibilities of democratic citizenship. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 In the perestroika period Russians were fond of citing the Biblical experience of the Jews, who spent 40 years in the wilderness after they left {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Egypt{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose}. Only a fresh generation with no experience of slavery would be capable of building a new, free society. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9722590\charrsid12131671 Obviously, t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 his }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9722590\charrsid12131671 did}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 not happen in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. The accelerating pace of global integration meant they did not have the opportunity to stop history for 40 years. Rathe r than wandering in the desert, for the past 15 years the Russians have been frantically constructing a new society, with new social norms that were still heavily shaped by the preceding Soviet society. (One can also note that they have been following lea ders who are somewhat less inspired than Moses.) \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Russians do have a certain anarchic affinity for freedom, and there were moments when the spirit of liberty was abroad in 1989-91, such as the televised debates of the first partly-freely elected congress in }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 March }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 1989. But these were fleeting moments: 1991 was more a collapse than a revolution. Even Russian liberals would probably agree that fear of repression was a more powerful motivator than }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 was }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 an embrace of liberty. Even at the peak of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 mass mobilization in 1991, the demonstrations}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}} Moscow{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} were 200-300,000 strong \endash 3% of the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 city\rquote s }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 population }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 \endash and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 smaller still in provincial cities, where they took }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1320721\charrsid12131671 place at all. Contrast this with}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the millions that took to the streets in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Poland{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}East Germany{\*\xmlclose} and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Czechoslovakia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Even }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 during the}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 perestroika period, opinion polls revealed a surprisingly strong well of public support in the Russian population for civil and political liberties.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 James L. Gibson, \'93 A mile wide but an inch deep (?): The structure of democratic commitment in the former USSR,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 American Journal of Political Science}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 40, 1996, 396-420; Timothy J. Colton and Michael McFaul, \'93Are Russians undemocratic?,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Post-Soviet Affairs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 18, no. 2, 2002, 91-121; Jeffrey W. Hahn \'93Political culture in Yaroslavl\rquote over time: How \'93civic\'94?\rquote in Jeffrey W. Hahn, (ed.), }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Regional Russia in Transition}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press 2001.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Some skeptics argued that these polls were too abstract, in that ordinary Russians did not see those values embedded in the actual practices and institutions of emergent democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose}.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 James }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 Alexander, }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid13257655 Political Culture in Post-Communist Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}New York {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: St. Martin\rquote s, 2000); Stephen White, Richard Rose and Ian McAllister, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid13257655 How Russia Votes}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1996); }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Richard Rose and Neil Munro and William Mishler, \'93Resigned acceptance of an incomplete democracy: {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s political equilibrium," }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Post-Soviet Affairs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 20 (2004), 195-218.}}}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Over the course of the 1990s the rift between abstract acceptance of democratic principles and discontent with their practical realization in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} grew more pronounced. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7299564\charrsid12131671 But t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 he fact that Russians continued to express their support for elections, free speech and so on was encouraging to those who argued that {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} could yet become a genuine democracy.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7299564\charrsid12131671 One}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 key difference is that in the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}U.S. {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} liberty was closely connected to property. This was n}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7299564\charrsid12131671 ot so in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, where property was}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7299564\charrsid12131671 historically}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 mon}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid7299564\charrsid12131671 o}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15877278\charrsid12131671 polized by the state and there was no space to make the connection between property rights and individual freedom.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4749554 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid4749554 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid4749554 Richard Pipes, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid4749554 Property and Freedom}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid4749554 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Vintage, 2000). }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Religious values feature prominently in Tocqueville\rquote s a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 nalysis of American democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . (\'93It must never be forgotten that religion gave birth to Anglo-American society.\'94 ) Protestantism cul}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 tivated a sense of equal worth}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 and }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 promoted }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 individual responsibility for one\rquote s own fate}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 , unmediated by priestly authority}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 Yet}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 most published accounts}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s attempted}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 transition}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 to democracy }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 barely mention the role of religion}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 In part this was due to the fact that Russian society was indeed highly secular. For seven de}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 cades the Soviet state }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 had }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 conducted a ri}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 gorous and effective }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 campaign against religion, in the mistaken belief that modernity requires the abandonment of religious values. This }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 dismissive attitude towards religio}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 n is sha}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 red by many Western liberals, which is another reason why}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 religious values were usually absent from analysis of the prospects for democracy in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 A further reason for downplaying religion is the fact that religious organizations}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 did not feature prominently in the Russian transition}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 . This is}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 in stark contrast to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 the transition in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}East Europe{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. The Catholic Church was obviously pivotal to the anti-communist resistance in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} Poland}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}, while in East Germany}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Protestant peace groups formed the core of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Leipzig{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} protests. Indeed, in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} religious groups were invisible during the transition}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 The Orthodox Church was}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 seen as a bastion of the state authorities, be they communist or post-communist}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 . Duri ng the Soviet period the Orthodox leadership, the Patriarchy, had made some significant compromises with the authorities, in a bid }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 to maintain the Church\rquote s survival}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 The Church also quickly established a cosy relationship with the Yeltsin administration, w inning substantial concessions in exchange for its political support. (These ranged from the return of buildings to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 the granting of }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 import}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 /}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 export licenses}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 for commodities from oil to alcohol}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid939542\charrsid12131671 .) }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 Under President Putin the Church has been even more tightly embraced as the official ideology of the Russian state, with Putin introducing the practice of state officials attending Church services. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Since 1991 there has been a minor upsurge in religious identification and practice}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 amongst ordinary Russians}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 , but }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 his is more a fashion than a spiritual revival, and has few political overtones \endash other than support for the Yeltsin-Putin regime.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Zoe Knox, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Russian Society and the Orthodox Church: Religion in Russia After Communism}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}London{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Routledge/Curzon, 2004); }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 John Basil, \'93 Church-state relations in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Orthodoxy and federation law, 1990\~\endash \~2004,\'94 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 HYPERLINK "http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/crss" \\o "Religion, State and Society" }}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs23\i\cf1\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 Religion, State and Society}}}\sectd \linex0\endnhere\titlepg\sectdefaultcl\sftnbj {\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\lang9\langfe1033\langnp9\insrsid13257655 vol. 33,\~no. 2, June 2005, 151-164.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid3415508\charrsid12131671 More often that not, r}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 eligion has achieved political prominence only in the context of the negation of liberty}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 , as in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the 1997 Russian Federation law that cracked down on \'93non-traditional\'94 religions, including Protesta ntism and Catholicism. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 Western analysts tend to regard }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Orthodox}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 y, in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} and in South-Eastern Europe, as}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the least conducive to democracy of all the Christian denominations. Focusing on spiritual salvation than worldly deed s, it did not encourage the separation of church and state (something that enabled the church in the West to become an independent political actor), nor did it focus on the individual.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Peter Berger, \'93Christianity and democracy,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Journal of Democracy,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 vol. 15, no. 2, April 2004, 76-80.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Individualism (a word in}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 troduced into the English language}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 via}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Tocqueville) was central to his explanation of the American breakthrough, and it is deeply rooted in the Protestant tradition of an individual responsible for his or her own fate,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 through study of the Bible}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} is not a society devoid of prominent, and brilliant, individuals. It has more than its share of eccentrics, artists, holy men and anarchists. So the contrast with {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} cannot be reduced to black and white. But Russian individualism was not grou}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 nded in a system of property rights}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 , nor in a theological discourse, nor in a social contract to form a new society. The Protestant concept of the indiv idual is above all tempered by a respect for the laws governing social life \endash which derive from God but are \'93etched in the minds of men.\'94 The weakness of religious belief in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} thus correlates with lack of respect for the rule of law. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Protestant individualism was tempered by an urge to associate, which promoted awareness of common interests. Tocqueville\rquote s emphasis on the vigorous associational life of the early colonists has become a salient theme for contemporary political science, with the revival of interest in social capital.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655 B. Edwards, M.W. Foley, M. Diani (eds.),}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af192 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\v\f192\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 \'ea\'b3\'ea\'f3}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cgrid0\insrsid13257655 Beyond Tocqueville: Civil Society and the Social Capital Debate in Comparative Perspective}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cgrid0\insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Hanover{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}NH{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} : University Press of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New England{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, 2001).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Much effort has gone into studying incipient civil society in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} , and researchers were dismayed to find that Russians were reluctant to join organizations and to participate in public life beyond the act of voting.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Marc Morje Howard, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 The Weakness of Civil Society in Post-Communist Europe}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Cambridge{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}University{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Press, 2003); Al Evans and Lisa Sunstrom (eds.), }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Russian Civil Society: A Critical Assessment}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Armonk{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}NY{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: M.E. Sharpe, 2005).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 They had a low level of trust in public institutions, and in their fellow citizens. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Closer analysis revealed that post-1991 Russian society did consist of dense social networks, but these were based on friends and family rather than public associations such as political parties, charities, clubs, etc.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 Alena V. {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}\hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 Ledeneva}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlclose}\hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 , {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}\hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 s\hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 Economy of Favours: Blat, Networking and Informal Exchanges }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Russian social networks were informal rather than formal, hidden rather than transparent, and based on manipulation and avoidance of state instituti ons. They had their roots in the networks of favors (blat) that evolved during the decades of central planning, when personal contacts were need to secure resources from state authorities, which controlled everything from political life to personal career s to food and housing. These networks were built on the principle of inclusion and exclusion \endash \'93our\'94 people (}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 svoi}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ) and \'93theirs\'94 (}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 chuzhye}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ). \'93Ours\'94 must be trusted and helped, \'93theirs\'94 cannot be trusted and may be cheated with impunity. (\'93He who does not steal from the state, steals from his family.\'94 ) This attitude was corrosive not just of civil society, but of any concept of the rule and law, duty and the public sphere. It still prevails in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose} today. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 It turns out that just as there is \'93good\'94 and \'93bad\'94 cholesterol, so there is good and bad social capital. {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in 1991 had deep reserves of social capital \endash but of the \'93bad\'94 sort; and this actually flourished in the 1990s, finding new opportunities and tasks in the burgeoning but unregulated market economy. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 The Soviet state tried to compensate for the absence of public trust by stepping up bureauc}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 ratic monitoring and coercion. Under Yeltsin, t}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 he post-Soviet state had neither the capacity nor the political will to embrace those authoritarian methods. Instead it turned to new \'93political technologies\'94 of media mani}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 pulation. Under Putin there has been more of a return to authoritarian techniques, invigorated by }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 patriotism and xenophobia. \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10837434 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid16079032 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 Institutions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Clearly, the odds were stacked against {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} becoming a democracy in terms of the geopolitical and economic conditions in which it found itself in 1991, and the moral universe it inherited from the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ancien regime}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . Only a vigorous set of new democratic institutions could drag it into a viable civil society \endash a development that was possible to imagine, not least because of the strong shift in the international climate in favor of liberal democracy that accompanied the Soviet collap se. Unfortunately neither Mikhail Gorbachev nor Boris Yeltsin were able to build strong new}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 democratic}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 institutions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 . T}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 heir role was more that of destro}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 ying the old}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 than c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 reating the new}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . Absent strong institution-building from above, institutions were also slow to develop spontaneously, from below.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Valerie Sperling (ed.), }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid13257655 Building the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Russian{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}State{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. Institutional Crisis and the Quest for Democratic Governance}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Boulder{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}CO{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Westview Press, 2000).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Boris Yeltsin\rquote s {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was an unstable combination of anarchy and authoritarianism. Yeltsin\rquote s priority was simple: to s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 tay in power, to survive in a}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 chaotic environment, and hopefully }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 to }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 set {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} on a path to a better future. He ruled through a mixture of threats and compromise, adapting some old Soviet}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid4749554\charrsid12131671 -era}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 institutions while closing others, and creating some new institutions on the spot. Powerful institutions that had ruled people\rquote s lives for decades disappeared almost overnight \endash not only state structures such as the Communist Party of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} and the State Planning Committee (Gosplan), but also institutions that shaped social behavior down to its roots, such as the Young Pioneers or the practice of queuing for goods. Some feisty if unstable new institutions sprang up in their place: an elected parliament and president, a burgeoning capitalist class, markets, a free press, and even (perhaps) a free citizenry. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Although Western commentators are rightly critical of the poor quality of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s democratic institutions, in a broader historical context, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 it is still quite remarkable how quickly some}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 of the core institutions of modern democracy were put in place. {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} now has a federal structure, a written constitution, universal suffrage, and a directly elected president and lower chamber of parliament \endash things that we take for granted today, but that were novelties in Tocqueville\rquote s time. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8083698 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Free media became an important agent of change in the Gorbachev era, but this positive trend went into reverse as the Kremlin and its oligarchic allies used the media to rally support for Yeltsin\rquote s re-election in 1996.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Laura Belin, \'93The Russian media in the 1990s,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 18, no. 1, 2002, 139-61.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14499943\charrsid12131671 However, under President }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Putin }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid14499943\charrsid12131671 media freedom has been radically curtailed.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 By 2007 the television stations had become completely subservient to the Kremlin\rquote s political agenda. Independent voices can still be found in a handful of newspapers, on the radio station Ekho Moskvy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 and on the internet. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 During the Yeltsin period elections were regularly held, and while there may have been some fraud in some regions, the results generally reflected the will of the voters.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Richard Rose and Neil Munro, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Elections Without Order: Russia\rquote s Challenge to Vladimir Putin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Cambr idge University Press, 2002); Timothy Colton}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 , Transitional Citizens: Voters and What Influences Them in the New {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlclose} ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Cambridge{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}Mass. {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Harvard University Press, 2000); Michael McFaul, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Russia\rquote s Unfinished Revolution: Political Change from Gorbachev to Putin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Ithaca{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}NY{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Cornell University Press, 2001).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 The situation deteriorated under Putin: elections were still held on time, but the restrictions on the political opposition were stepped up}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 . A}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 fter the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 victory of the pro-government United Russia party in the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 2003 elections Putin established }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 firm}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 control over the parliament}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 , which became to all intents and purposes an extension of the Kremlin}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 .}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5798543 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 \tab Tocqueville put great store by the virtues of decentralization: democracy was rooted in free and self-governing local communities. Local government had never been a strong point of Russian political culture. Regional autonomy did receive a boost under Yeltsin, but Putin \rquote s recentralization drive has crushed most of what had been achieved in the 1990s.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5798543 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid5798543 \chftn }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid5798543 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543 Tomila Lankina, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543 Governing the Locals: Local S}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid6975404 elf-government and}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543 E}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid6975404 thnic }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543 M}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid6975404 obilization in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs22\cf1\insrsid5798543 {\*\xmlclose} ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}New York{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Rowman & Littlefield , 2004). \par }}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 Putin has also been adamant in striving to restore the Russian state as the dominant institution in society and the agent of progress and modernity. This kind of centralization would have been anathema for Tocqueville, who would see it as leading inevita bly to corruption from above and the stifling of initiative from below. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8083698 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Still,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 the Russian political system i}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 s not yet}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 a p}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 ersonal dictatorship. President}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Yeltsin and Putin }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 did }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 face}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 some}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 checks on their power. They had to contend with competing groups withi n the state bureaucracy; and with the several dozen independent-minded wealthy businessmen who controlled about one third of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s economy.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 According to}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \dbch\af186\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af186\loch\f0 a World Bank study, 23 large firms controlled by 37 individuals accoun\hich\af0\dbch\af186\loch\f0 ted for 30% of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}} \hich\af0\dbch\af186\loch\f0 Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\hich\f0 \rquote \loch\f0 s GDP. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 World Bank, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 From Transition to Development}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 (April }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 2004), }{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 HYPERLINK "http://www.worldbank.org.ru" }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid9440917 {\*\datafield 00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000017000000150000007700770077002e0077006f0072006c006400620061006e006b002e006f00720067002e00720075000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3a00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0077006f0072006c00640062006100 6e006b002e006f00720067002e00720075002f00000000000000000000312e52540000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs23\cf1\dbch\af187\insrsid13257655 \hich\af0\dbch\af187\loch\f0 www.worldbank.org.ru}}}\sectd \linex0\endnhere\titlepg\sectdefaultcl\sftnbj }}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 They were also constrained by the need to win elections (even with the help of fraud ); to maintain a loyal majority in parliament; and to avoid popular protest by non-violent means.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Thomas F. Remington, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 The Russian Parliament: Institutional Evolution in a Transitional Regime }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}New Haven{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceName}}Yale{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname PlaceType}}University{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} Press, 2001); Michael McFaul, Nikolai Petrov and Andrei Ryabov (eds.), }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Between Dictatorship and Democracy. Russian Post-Communist Political Reform}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 ( {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Washington{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}DC{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2004).}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid946327\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid8083698\charrsid12131671 The main question mark hanging over the power structure that Putin solidified was whether it will survive the departure of its founder from office: he is due to step down as president when his second term expires in May 2008. \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Following the writings of Aristotle and Montesquieu, the Founding Fathers were convinced that the best form of government was a mixed system that dispersed power across different institutions that combined democratic, oligarchic and monarchical ele ments. In a sense, the contemporary Russian political system fits the bill. It has a quasi-monarch (the president); it has direct elections for the presidency and the State Duma; and it has reinvented \'93oligarchy\'94 in the sphere of economic management. There is little sign, as yet, of the emergence of a stable, closed ruling class, akin to the landed aristocracy that was for Tocqueville the major barrier to democratic rule. From 1997-99 the dominant fear was that Russian democracy would collapse into }{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 rule by the economic }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 oligarch}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5798543\charrsid12131671 y}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 , but the 1998 financial crash and the subsequent arrival of President Putin has laid that scenario to rest.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Stephen Sestanovich, \'93Force, money and pluralism,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Journal of Democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 15, no. 3, July 2004, 33-58.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Nor has post-Soviet {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} yet developed an institutional structure equivalent to the old Communist Party of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Soviet Union {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} that could reliably replicate the permanent suppression of democratic contestation. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Where modern Russian democracy would clearly disappoint Tocqueville is in the absence of rule of law. The rule of law was the unifying principle of American republicanism, but respect for the law is starkly absent in the Russian case.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Peter Solomon and Todd Fogelsong, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Courts and Transition in }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs24\i\insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: The Challenge of Judicial Reform}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 . ({\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Boulder{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}, {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname State}}CO{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}: Westview Press, 2000); Robert Sharlet, \'93Putin and the politics of law in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose},\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Post-Soviet Affairs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 17, no. 3, Jul 2001, 195-234.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Contemporary {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} is far from the Anglo-Saxon notion of law as an independent system that can serve as a check on the political authorities. And despite Putin\rquote s invocation of a \'93dictatorship of law,\'94 it is even some way from a Continental Rechstaat, in which the state obeys its own laws (while not subjecting itself to independent judicial review). The Russian state has shown a cavalier disregard of legal constraints: from Yeltsin\rquote s dissolut ion of the Supreme Court in 1993; to the waging of the war in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Chechnya{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} ; to the persecution of Yukos in 2003-5. The public correspondingly lacks faith in legal institutions \endash although polls show public support for the jury trials that have been steadily introduced across the country. The public disrespect for the law goes back to the Soviet period, and is connected to the weakness of a religious moral code. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Western transitology has devoted more attention to institution-building in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} than to pre-existing conditions or morals. Institutions }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 may be}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 more interesting because they }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 seem to b}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 e the most amenable to human agency}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 (and Western intervention)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 . }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 But by the mid-2000s, even former exponents of the t ransition school were having second thoughts about the feasibility of a rapid transition to democracy in the post-Soviet states.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 Thomas Carothers, \'93The end of the transition paradigm,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Journal of Democracy}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 , vol. 13, no. 1 2002, 5-21.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 As of 2007, of the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 15 post-}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 S}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 oviet s}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 tates only }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 the Baltic countries and Ukraine were}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 rated as \'93free\'94 by Freedom House, while Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova were rated as \'93partly free.\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 The remaining eight are \'93unfree.\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid5121652\charrsid12131671 Clearly, factors other than constitutional design were sha ping the political trajectory of these countries, such as the absence of respect for rule of law or a political culture of give-and-take among the political elite.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Transitology assumed that any developed society was ripe for democratization, and that demo cratic institutions could quickly be designed and installed. Russians themselves were skeptical on this score. Having been burned once by the experience of revolutionary transformation, they take a conservative stance on the malleability of human nature a nd social institutions. A popular Russian homily from the perestroika era was the tale of the English gardener. When asked how to produce such a perfect lawn, he replies \'93It\rquote s easy, just roll it every day \'85. for 300 years.\'94 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Were Tocqueville himself brought back to life and asked to comment on contemporary {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}, he would probably note both positive and negative features, and conclude that after 15 years it is far too early to say what will be the long-term character of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s polity. It draws attention to some features that tend to be overlooked in the current pessimism about the state of Russian democracy, such as the presence of oligarchic and monarchic elements (balancing out the dangers of populist majoritaria nism). But overall the Tocquevillian perspective inclines one to be deeply skeptical about the possibility for the rapid introduction of democratic institutions in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}} Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. \par }\pard \ltrpar\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10837434 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid16079032 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 C}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 onclusion}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15865092 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par Does it make sense to try to apply Tocqueville\rquote s approach to contemporary {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}? Tocqueville\rquote s analysis has stood the test of time as a brilliant dissection of some key features of the American political system. He was writing at a moment when {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}America{\*\xmlclose} was just developing as a democracy \endash a stage not unlike {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} today. In the 1830s, of course, democracy was virtually unknown on the global stage, and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}America{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} was an exceptional case. Now, at the dawn of the 21}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 st}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 century, democracy is the norm for developed, European countries, and {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} is the exception. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 It is up to the reader to judge whether this is anything more than an empty }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 intellectual exercise. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 One}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 might say Tocqueville is irrelevant \endash that the world has changed since 1835, that giant bureaucracies like the KGB, or the welfare state, were unknown to Tocqueville, not to mention technologies like television. True enough. But }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 some}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 features of human society }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 have }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 stay}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 ed}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the same}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 . T}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 he American political system itself still operates within an institutional structure created 2}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 25}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 years ago, in an age without modern bureaucracy, technology etc.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Huntington{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} rightly poin ts out that most of these features actually evolved much earlier than 1787, in Tudor England, so the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}US{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} constitution was enshrining a set of political practices that were already archaic. Samuel P. Huntington, }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\insrsid13257655 Political Order in Changing Societies}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 122-33.}}}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Some of the key innovations of that time \endash a written constitution, rule of law, independent judiciary, individual rights, religious toleration, checks and balances, etc \endash are now being encouraged for other countries such as Russia. It }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 thus }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 behooves us to look back at the geopolitical, moral and sociological context within which those institutions emerged. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Writing in the 1830s, Tocqueville failed to foresee some important developments in Amer ican so}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 ciety: the emergence of a powerful}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 presidency and strong political parties; the industrial revolution and the rise of big corporations; and the role of money in politics, uniting these two trends. He only partly foresaw the cataclysm of civil war, a lthough he did explore the differences between North and South and the conflicts they were engendering. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 What does the Tocquevillian reading of Russian politics overlook? What, in the words of Donald Rumsfeld, are the \'93unknown unknowns\'94 that we are omittin g? No observer of Russian society would fail to note the strong presidency, the rise of big corporations, and the role of money in politics. Under the influence of Western democratic experience, US political scientists have spent much of the past 15 years anxiously awaiting the arrival of a strong party system in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. Suffice it to say that they are still waiting. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 In contrast to the American case, a civil wa}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 r is unlikely to explode on the }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 scene. This was a widely-discussed fear in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} in the period 1987-96, but it has largely disappeared since the consolidat}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 ion of Putin\rquote s administration. Such a conflict}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 would have been an ideological war for control over the s tate apparatus between Leftist and Rightist forces, as were its precursors in 1918-21 and 1930-37. Now}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 the only plausible civil war would be a widening of the Chechen insurrection to other Moslem regions of {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose}, principally neighboring regions of the {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}North Caucasus{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. This is a plausible and}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 bloody scenario}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 ,}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 but one }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 that would probably lead to the further consolidation of Russian society around its leader. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Many observers have warned of the emergence of a hard-li ne fascist regime, drawing parallels with {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname City}}Weimar{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Germany {\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}.}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \chftn {\footnote \ltrpar \pard\plain \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\wrapdefault\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs20\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cs18\super\insrsid13257655 \chftn }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \insrsid13257655 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 Jeffrey Kopstein and Stephen Hanson, \'93The Weimar-Russia comparison,\'94 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\cf1\insrsid13257655 Post-Soviet Affairs}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0 \ltrch\fcs0 \cf1\insrsid13257655 , vol. 13, no. 3, July 1997, 252-283.}}}{ \rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 However, that has not come to pass: there are fascists in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose}, but they are an extreme minority, no more visible than in any other contemporary European democracy. And such thinking has not}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 substantially}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 influenced {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s leaders: Yeltsin was not Slobodan Milosevic, inva}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 ding his neighbors; and Putin has not reached the repression level o}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 f}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 an}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 Alya}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ksandr Lukashenko}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}Belarus}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} or Islam Karimov}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid1970224\charrsid12131671 in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Uzbekistan}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 {\*\xmlclose} {\*\xmlclose}. \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Perhaps the most valuable conclusion from this exercise is that Tocqueville reminds us of the interdependence between th}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid11744058\charrsid12131671 e domains of conditions, more}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 s and institutions. Foreign policy cannot be separated from domestic policy: the one feeds into the other. Western transitologists largely ignored {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}\rquote s sense of wounded pride due to its loss of superpower status, and hence}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15491772\charrsid12131671 the willingness of the people }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 and the elite to support a leader who would act to restore that pride, even at the expense of democracy. Likewise, by overlooking the vacuum in religious beliefs, outside observers were over-optimistic in assuming that associational life and respect for the law would quickly and almost automatically take root in {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}}{\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose}. }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16465111\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9844350 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9844350\charrsid12131671 \par }\pard\plain \ltrpar\s25\ql \li0\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar\wrapdefault\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16465111 \rtlch\fcs1 \af50\afs16\alang1025 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs16\lang1033\langfe1033\loch\af50\hich\af50\dbch\af35\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 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{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid16465111\charrsid12131671 \par Source: Freedom House, www.freedomhouse.org \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \page }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Figure }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid16465111\charrsid12131671 Two}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \tab \tab \tab A Tocquevillian Checklist for {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname country-region}} {\*\xmlopen\xmlns2{\factoidname place}}Russia{\*\xmlclose}{\*\xmlclose} }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 in 2007}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Impact on democracy:}{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \tab Negative }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\i\fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ab\ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \b\i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Positive \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par Conditions}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par \par Authoritarian past\tab \tab XX \par Revolutionary legacy\tab \tab X \par Vulnerability to attack\tab \tab XX \par Former empire\tab \tab \tab X \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 Ethnic fragmentation\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Economic structure\tab \tab X \par Living standard\tab \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Education level\tab \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 XX \par \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 Morals \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par Lack of religiosity\tab \tab XX \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 Orthodox Church\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 I}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 ndividualism \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 -- }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 -- \par Weak associational life\tab XX \par Equality of social status\tab \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \ai\af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \i\fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par Institutions \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 Strong president\tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 XX \par Strong security forces\tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 XX \par Weak rule of law\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 XX \par Elected leaders\tab \tab \tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Universal suffrage\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 XX \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 Weak c}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 hecks and balances\tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 X}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Mixed system of government\tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid10837434\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 (presidential-parliamentary)}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \par Federal structure\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Lack of free press\tab \tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid2647182\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par Weak political parties\tab \tab }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622\charrsid12131671 X}{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid15865092\charrsid12131671 X \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9457622 \par }{\rtlch\fcs1 \af0\afs24 \ltrch\fcs0 \fs24\cf1\insrsid9844350\charrsid12131671 \par }}